Republican Donald Trump's surprise defeat in Iowa at the hands of U.S. Senator Ted Cruz reflected shortcomings in his get-out-the-vote operations and an over reliance on his celebrity status in a state where voters prefer the personal touch.

The New York billionaire and former TV reality star generated much enthusiasm for his anti-establishment message, but in the end he was out muscled by Cruz' more traditional ground game and saw some late-deciding voters side with Sen. Marco Rubio.

All signs had pointed to a Trump victory in the first nominating contest in the race for the White House, with the Des Moines Register's influential poll giving Trump the lead on the weekend before Iowans went to caucus on Monday.